The Claims of Liberation Theology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Claims of Liberation Theology - Essay Example This means that the liberation theology of a Gustavo Gutirrez is substantially the same as that of a Christian laborer in northeastern Brazil. The basic content is the same. The sap that feeds the branches of the tree is the same sap that passes through the trunk and rises from the hidden roots underground. The distinction between the levels is in their logic, but more specifically in their language. Theology can be more or less articulate; popular theology will be expressed in everyday speech, with its spontaneity and feeling, whereas professional theology adopts a more scholarly language, with the structure and restraint proper to it. It is not hard to see what liberation theology is when one starts at its roots-that is, by examining what the base communities do when they read the Bible and compare it with the oppression and longing for liberation in their own lives. But this is just what professional liberation theology is doing: it is simply doing it in a more sophisticated way. On the middle level, pastoral theology uses a language and approach that draw on both the ground level and the scholarly level. Truth, in the Bible, includes fidelity, justice, and firmness. ... The fulfillment takes place in history, and thus, God appears truthful through history. Christ is the fulfillment of the Father's promise which makes us his children in him. This is according to the acts and words of Jesus. The Father fulfills his promise in the death and resurrection of Jesus. To be a Christian is to accept that the promise begins to be fulfilled and realized in a historical context. In the Bible, the act of knowing is not relegated to a purely intellectual level. There exists contemporary yearn for a mechanical correspondence in the relationship between knowing and transforming and living a truth which verifies itself in history. Nevertheless, the cultural world in which we live allows us to discover a starting point and a horizon in which we can delineate a theological reflection which must appeal to its own sources. The theology of liberation differs from such theologies as those of development, revolution, and violence not only in a different analysis of reality based on more universal and radical political options, but above all, in the very concept of the task of theology. The theology of liberation does not intend to provide Christian justification for positions already taken and does not aim to be a revolutionary Christian ideology. It is a reflection which makes a start with the historical praxis of people. It seeks to rethink the faith from the perspective of that historical praxis, and it is based on the experience of the faith derived from the liberating commitment. For this reason, this theology comes only after that involvement; the theology is always a second act. (Bonino, 1975, 109-14) Its themes are, therefore, the great themes of all true

Discuss the differences between leadership and management. Is there a Assignment

Discuss the differences between leadership and management. Is there a difference If so, how - Assignment Example The managers in management tend to be under control, often rational and problem solvers. They put a lot of emphasis on the predetermined objectives, personnel, structures and availability of resources. The personalities of these kinds of people mostly seem to have strong will, persistence, intelligence and analysis. Leaders are often referred as mercurial and brilliant people who possess great charisma. Despite the fact that the leaders are private people and loners, they are usually comfortable of taking risks is it crazy or wild risks. Most of the leaders have high levels of creativity and imagination. Leadership puts a lot of focus in leading people while management only concentrates at managing the people. Management is more of task oriented and concerned with results. Leadership is people oriented and puts its attention on achievements (Gunter, 2005). The approach towards tasks of the two methods of running an organization clearly differentiates them. Management creates policies, strategies, and methods that facilitate the combination of teams and ideas to enhance smooth running of operations. They people through obtaining their views, principles, and values. They do this having in mind that the combination will decrease the inherent success and lead to success. Leadership, on the contrary, looks at the problems at a different angle and devises new and creative solutions. Due to their great charisma and intense commitment, they bring excitement, motivation, and focus to other people to come up with solutions and excel. In management the organizations are ran through styles such as dictatorial, transactional, authoritative, autocratic, democratic and consultative since power is got through formal authority and position. This is quite different in leadership as it practices indulging styles such as Transformational, Participative a nd Consultative styles due to the charisma and influence they possess (Schermerhorn,

Alcoholic beverage Essay Example for Free

Alcoholic beverage Essay In 2011, the rate of alcohol-impaired driving fatalities per 100,000 population was 3. 2, representing a 65% decrease since 1982, when record keeping began, and 49% since the inception of The Century Council in 1991. What this translates into is, for every 100,000 people in the US in 2011, slightly more than three people were killed in a drunk driving fatal crash, a rate that has been cut almost in half over the past two decades down from a rate of 6. 3 in 1991. Alcohol-impaired driving fatalities accounted for 31% of the total vehicle traffic fatalities in 2011. Between 1991 and 2011, the rate of drunk driving fatalities per 100,000 population has decreased 49% nationally, and 63% among those under 21. These statistics and others are positive indicators of the gains being made to fight drunk driving, and while The Century Council cannot claim to be the sole influence in these reductions, it is likely we have played a significant role in reaching these historic low levels. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 32,367 people died in traffic crashes in 2011 in the United States (latest figures available), including an estimated 9,878 people who were killed in drunk driving crashes involving a driver with an illegal BAC (. 08 or greater). Among the people killed in these drunk driving crashes, 66% were drivers (6,507), 27% were motor vehicle occupants (2,661), and 7% were non-occupants (710), with an average of one person dying in a drunk driving fatality every 53 minutes. The Century Council’s Statistics Drinking alcohol and benefits. Over the last five years, the health benefits of moderate drinking have been widely celebrated in the headlines. To those who think everything enjoyable must be bad for you, this news might seem like a dream come true. Of course, there are many caveats and these studies dont indicate that teetotalers should take up drinking or that infrequent drinkers should start drinking more. The operative word here is drinking in moderation. Studies show, for example, that health benefits only come with moderate drinking and are greatest for older men. And even moderate drinking is not recommended for women who are pregnant or thinking of becoming pregnant, or for people who are under 21. The strongest medical evidence exists for the link between moderate drinking and a reduced risk of heart disease. Dr. Kenneth Mukamal, an internist at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and assistant professor at Harvard Medical School in Boston, was the lead author of a New England Journal of Medicine study examining the roles of drinking patterns and heart disease that found, after 12 year of follow-up, that men who consumed alcohol between three and seven days a week had fewer heart attacks than men who drank once a week. Below, Mukamal discusses the risk and benefits of moderate drinking. Do we know why moderate drinking lowers heart disease risk? We think that a lot of the benefits of alcohol are on the blood vessels and on blockages in the arteries to the heart and to the brain. This might be related to alcohols effect on the good cholesterol, the HDL cholesterol. In fact, alcohol affects HDL levels just about as strongly as any other lifestyle factor. People also think that alcohol may lower heart attack risk by acting as a blood thinner. What are some of the other health benefits associated with moderate drinking? A wide variety of health effects have been attributed to moderate drinking. A lower risk of diabetes has been seen in women and men. There actually have been experiments done in which alcohol was administered over a couple of months to people without diabetes. In those studies, most of which have been conducted in women interestingly, it looks like moderate drinking improves the bodys sensitivity to insulin. It may actually lower insulin levels altogether and may prevent diabetes through that mechanism. More recently weve done some work on moderate drinking and dementia. We looked at a group of older adults in the United States average age was in the mid-70s and found a reduced risk. There has been some more work in slightly younger populations from Europe, and those studies have fairly consistently suggested that older adults who were drinking moderately may have a lower risk of dementia. Were not exactly sure what the mechanisms may be behind that. Some of it may very well be because drinking tends to occur in social settings and just the process of getting out and socializing may be an important way to prevent dementia. There is also evidence that moderate drinking may prevent silent strokes or other subtle types of brain injury that we know over time can predispose to dementia. I think its still an area where we need some more investigation. Is the pattern of alcohol consumption important? In most of the studies that look at this issue, people have been asked How much alcohol do you usually drink? When that question is asked, people take an average. For example, I drink 10 drinks a month. But 10 drinks a month is very different for someone who has them all on one night vs. someone who has them on 10 different nights of the month. That kind of detail surprisingly hasnt been available in most of the studies that have been devoted to this topic. In our study we tried to figure out the drinking pattern thats most closely tied to lower heart attack risk. What we found in a study of about 38,000 men was that the key factor wasnt what men were drinking, or frankly even so much how much they were drinking at a time, but how frequently they were drinking alcohol. We found that men who were drinking at least three to four days a week or more had lower heart attack risks than people who had one drink a week. We also have some very strong studies showing that heart disease risk, while lower amongst moderate drinkers, can be substantially higher among people who drink to excess even occasionally. They dont have to be drinking excessively every single night to potentially have a greater heart attack risk. Many of the effects of moderate drinking, such as acting as a blood thinner, are only true at moderate levels of drinking. Those effects actually go away and reverse if people drink too much. What constitutes one drink? What doctors usually consider a drink is basically a medium glass of wine, a 1. 5 oz shot of spirits, or a can or bottle of beer. All of those have roughly similar amounts of pure alcohol in them. We usually define moderate drinking as up to one drink per day for adult women who arent pregnant and up to two drinks per day for adult men. Some guidelines recommend that moderate drinking among adults over 65 be limited to one drink per day. Are the heart benefits of alcohol consumption the same for men and women? In general, when were thinking about the putative health benefits of moderate drinking, they mostly apply to older people and to men. Issues for women and for younger individuals are much more difficult to sort out. The role of alcohol consumption in heart disease varies strongly by gender. The reason for that is twofold. On the one hand, women at any given age tend to have lower risks of heart disease than men do. As a result, the benefits of moderate drinking accrue disproportionately to men. At the same time, there are some particular risks of drinking for women that dont exist for men. There is some evidence that women may be particularly prone, for example, to liver disease related to drinking. Even moderate drinking may increase breast cancer risk. And, while the effects on heart attack risk are roughly similar in men and women, I think its even more difficult to determine what the ideal level of drinking ought to be for women than it is for men. I think it is fair to say that if young women in general are drinking with the expectation that there is some health benefit to it for them, theyre probably mistaken. Young women are a group of people for which, as of now, we basically have no clear proof that the overall balance of alcohols risks and benefits is going to work in their favor. What are some of the risks of moderate drinking? There is fairly consistent evidence that breast cancer rates are higher among women who drink moderately. I think thats important because obviously breast cancer is very common disease. I certainly think women at high risk for breast cancer should talk with their doctors about whether they should be drinking any alcohol. Another important risk, which is unrecognized for many people in this country, is that even moderate drinking among people with hepatitis C may increase their risk of permanent liver damage. Anybody who is known to have hepatitis C shouldnt be drinking any alcohol at all. People who have risk factors for hepatitis C ought to be tested because it will very substantially impact what the potential risks are related to moderate drinking. In addition, although we dont think moderate drinking necessarily clouds our judgment, it turns out that it probably does. In simulated driving tests that were done as far back as the 1950s, people have realized that at very low blood alcohol levels, simulated driving performance is impaired. When I say low blood alcohol, what Im talking about is as low as . 02 percent. Some studies, for example, the analysis of the National Alcohol Survey, showed something similar. You begin to see higher risks of injury even when people are reporting one drink a day. Thats why we still recommend that even moderate drinking occur in the home, preferably tied to meals. That is not so much because we find that that drinking with a meal is more likely to lower heart disease risk, for example, but because its the safest way to prevent high blood alcohol levels that can get people into accidents. What about people with a history of alcohol abuse? Although it has been bantered back and forth, most people think that people who have a personal history ofalcoholism very rarely can return to social drinking. People who, for personal or family reasons have never had alcohol before, at least as of now, probably shouldnt start drinking for any health reason. What is your advice for an individual who is weighing the risks or benefits of moderate drinking? Its hard to give any single piece of advice because of all the things weve learned about moderate drinking. The potential risks and benefits are going to vary by a persons health history, their age, sex and family history. The number of factors that would have to go into the decision is really very substantial. As a primary care doctor myself, these are long discussions that people should have with their doctor. I would not recommend that anybody go out tomorrow and start drinking alcohol simply on the basis of results that we and others have presented. I would say that for people who are drinking moderately and are able to control it and dont have any of the absolute reasons why they shouldnt be drinking alcohol, that there is no evidence now that thats a bad thing to do. Beyond that, I dont think right now we have enough evidence to say that anybody should take up drinking just for any particular benefit unless their doctors recommend that they do so. www. medicalnewstoday. com 7 Health Benefits Of Drinking Alcohol Getting wasted every weekend might not be the best thing for your physical or mental well-being, but moderate alcohol consumption may have some substantial health benefits. It should be noted that alcohol consumption and its benefits vary based on an individuals body makeup and type. According to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, moderate alcohol consumption is defined as having up to one drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men. This definition is referring to the amount consumed on any single day and is not intended as an average over several days. Now, weve all heard the reasons why alcohol is bad for you, but what about the benefits? Here is our list of seven ways that drinking alcohol in moderation (when youre of the legal drinking age of course) might benefit your health. 1. It Can Lower Your Risk Of Cardiovascular Disease. The School of Public Health at Harvard University found that moderate amounts of alcohol raises levels of high-density lipoprotein, HDL, or good cholesterol and higher HDL levels are associated with greater protection against heart disease. Moderate alcohol consumption has also been linked with beneficial changes ranging from better sensitivity to insulin to improvements in factors that influence blood clotting. Such changes would tend to prevent the formation of small blood clots that can block arteries in the heart, neck, and brain, the ultimate cause of many heart attacks and the most common kind of stroke. This finding is applicable to both men and women who have not been previously diagnosed with any type of cardiovascular disease. Follow Us 2. It Can Lengthen Your Life Drinking occasionally could add a few years to your life. A study by the Catholic University of Campobasso reported that drinking less than four or two drinks per day for men and women respectively could reduce the risk of death by 18 percent, as reported by Reuters. Little amounts, preferably during meals, this appears to be the right way (to drink alcohol), said Dr. Giovanni de Gaetano of Catholic University, another author on the study. This is another feature of the Mediterranean diet, where alcohol, wine above all, is the ideal partner of a dinner or lunch, but thats all: the rest of the day must be absolutely alcohol-free. 3. It Can Improve Your Libido Contrary to prior beliefs, newer research has found that moderate drinking might actually protect against erectile dysfunction in the same way that drinking red wine might benefit heart disease. In a 2009 study published in the, Journal of Sexual Medicine, researchers found that the chances of erectile dysfunction were reduced by 25 to 30 percent among alcohol drinkers. The lead researcher, Kew-Kim Chew, an epidemiologist at the University of West Australia, conducted the study with 1,770 Australian men. In his study, Chew cautiously noted that he and his team in no way are advising men to hit the bottle, and that further research is needed to accurately connect impotence and alcohol consumption. 4. It Helps Prevent Against the Common Cold. The Department of Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University found that while susceptibility to the common cold was increased by smoking, moderate alcohol consumption led to a decrease in common cold cases for nonsmokers. This study was conducted in 1993 with 391 adults. In 2002, according to the New York Times, Spanish researchers found that by drinking eight to 14 glasses of wine per week, particularly red wine, one could see a 60-percent reduction in the risk of developing a cold. The scientists suspected that this had something to do with the antioxidant properties of wine. 5. It Can Decrease Chances Of Developing Dementia In a study that included more than 365,000 participants since 1977, as reported in the journal Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, moderate drinkers were 23 percent less likely to develop cognitive impairment or Alzheimers disease and other forms of dementia. Small amounts of alcohol might, in effect, make brain cells more fit. Alcohol in moderate amounts stresses cells and thus toughens them up to cope with major stresses down the road that could cause dementia, said Edward J. Neafsey, Ph. D. , co-author of the study, as reported by Science Daily. We dont recommend that nondrinkers start drinking, Neafsey said. But moderate drinking — if it is truly moderate — can be beneficial. 6. It Can Reduce The Risk Of Gallstones Drinking two units of alcohol per day can reduce the risk of gallstones by one-third, according to researchers at the University of East Anglia. The study found that those who reported consuming two UK units of alcohol per day had a one-third reduction in their risk of developing gallstones. Researchers emphasized that their findings show the benefits of moderate alcohol intake but stress that excessive alcohol intake can cause health problems, according to the study. 7. Lowers The Chance Of Diabetes. Results of a Dutch study showed that healthy adults who drink one to two glasses per day have a decreased chance of developing type 2 diabetes, in comparison to those who dont drink at all. The results of the investigation show that moderate alcohol consumption can play a part in a healthy lifestyle to help reduce the risk of developing diabetes type 2, researchers said in a statement to Reuters. By Sabrina Bachai http://www. medicaldaily. com 12 Health Risks of Chronic Heavy Drinking Its no secret that alcohol consumption can cause major health problems, including cirrhosis of the liver and injuries sustained in automobile accidents. But if you think liver disease and car crashes are the only health risks posed by drinking, think again: Researchers have linked alcohol consumption to more than 60 diseases. Alcohol does all kinds of things in the body, and were not fully aware of all its effects, says James C. Garbutt, MD, professor of psychiatry at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine and a researcher at the universitys Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies. Its a pretty complicated little molecule. Here are 12 conditions linked to chronic heavy drinking. Anemia. Heavy drinking can cause the number of oxygen-carrying red blood cells to be abnormally low. This condition, known as anemia, can trigger a host of symptoms, including fatigue, shortness of breath, and lightheadedness. Cancer Habitual drinking increases the risk of cancer, says Jurgen Rehm, PhD, chairman of the University of Torontos department of addiction policy and a senior scientist at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, also in Toronto. Scientists believe the increased risk comes when the body converts alcohol into acetaldehyde, a potent carcinogen. Cancer sites linked to alcohol use include the mouth, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), esophagus, liver, breast, and colorectal region. Cancer risk rises even higher in heavy drinkers who also use tobacco. Cardiovascular disease Heavy drinking, especially bingeing, makes platelets more likely to clump together into blood clots, which can lead to heart attack or stroke. In a landmark study published in 2005, Harvard researchers found that binge drinking doubled the risk of death among people who initially survived a heart attack. Heavy drinking can also cause cardiomyopathy, a potentially deadly condition in which the heart muscle weakens and eventually fails, as well as heart rhythm abnormalities such as atrial and ventricular fibrillation. Atrial fibrillation, in which the hearts upper chambers (atria) twitch chaotically rather than constrict rhythmically, can cause blood clots that can trigger a stroke. Ventricular fibrillation causes chaotic twitching in the hearts main pumping chambers (ventricles). It causes rapid loss of consciousness and, in the absence of immediate treatment, sudden death. Cirrhosis Alcohol is toxic to liver cells, and many heavy drinkers develop cirrhosis, a sometimes-lethal condition in which the liver is so heavily scarred that it is unable to function. But its hard to predict which drinkers will develop cirrhosis. Some people who drink huge amounts never get cirrhosis, and some who dont drink very much do get it, Saitz says. For some unknown reason, women seem to be especially vulnerable. Dementia As people age, their brains shrink, on average, at a rate of about 1. 9% per decade. Thats considered normal. But heavy drinking speeds the shrinkage of certain key regions in the brain, resulting in memory loss and other symptoms of dementia. Heavy drinking can also lead to subtle but potentially debilitating deficits in the ability to plan, make judgments, solve problems, and perform other aspects of executive function, which are the higher-order abilities that allow us to maximize our function as human beings, Garbutt says. In addition to the nonspecific dementia that stems from brain atrophy, heavy drinking can cause nutritional deficiencies so severe that they trigger other forms of dementia. Depression. Its long been known that heavy drinking often goes hand in hand with depression, but there has been debate about which came first the drinking or the depression. One theory is that depressed people turned to alcohol in an attempt to self-medicate to ease their emotional pain. But a large study from New Zealand showed that it was probably the other way around that is, heavy drinking led to depression. Research has also shown that depression improves when heavy drinkers go on the wagon, Saitz says. Seizures Heavy drinking can cause epilepsy and can trigger seizures even in people who dont have epilepsy. It can also interfere with the action of the medications used to treat convulsions. Gout A painful condition, gout is caused by the formation of uric acid crystals in the joints. Although some cases are largely hereditary, alcohol and other dietary factors seem to play a role. Alcohol also seems to aggravate existing cases of gout. High blood pressure Alcohol can disrupt the sympathetic nervous system, which, among other things, controls the constriction and dilation of blood vessels in response to stress, temperature, exertion, etc. Heavy drinking and bingeing, in particular can cause blood pressure to rise. Over time, this effect can become chronic. High blood pressure can lead to many other health problems, including kidney disease, heart disease, and stroke. Infectious disease Heavy drinking suppresses the immune system, providing a toehold for infections, including tuberculosis, pneumonia, HIV/AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases (including some that cause infertility). People who drink heavily also are more likely to engage in risky sex. Heavy drinking is associated with a three-fold increase in the risk of contracting a sexually transmitted disease, Rehmn says. Nerve damage Heavy drinking can cause a form of nerve damage known as alcoholic neuropathy, which can produce a painful pins-and-needles feeling or numbness in the extremities as well as muscle weakness, incontinence, constipation, erectile dysfunction, and other problems. Alcoholic neuropathy may arise because alcohol is toxic to nerve cells, or because nutritional deficiencies attributable to heavy drinking compromise nerve function. Pancreatitis In addition to causing stomach irritation (gastritis), drinking can inflame the pancreas. Chronic pancreatitis interferes with the digestive process, causing severe abdominal pain and persistent diarrhea and its not fixable, Saitz says. Some cases of chronic pancreatitis are triggered by gallstones, but up to 60% stem from alcohol consumption. By David Freeman WebMD Feature Reviewed by Marina Katz, MD HOW DO PEOPLE BECOME ADDICTED TO ALCOHOL? Pleasure People use alcohol because they enjoy the way it makes them feel, report doctors at the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP). The brain is wired to seek out enjoyable feelings and to repeat the process that made those reactions possible. Alcoholism is a disease that affects the brain, creating a craving for a repetition of the good sensations. Doctors at the AAFP say that the brain chemistry actually changes to seek out those pleasurable activities, causing the consciousness to lose control over the behavior that will provide them. Alcoholism, or an addiction to alcohol, results when the need for those repeated pleasurable sensations becomes stronger than the need for security. Consequences such as loss of relationships, jobs and freedom cannot overcome the brains desires to seek more pleasure. Read more: http://www. livestrong. com/article/27164-people-become-addicted-alcohol/#ixzz2jLgnOq7T Physical Changes Doctors at the Mayo Clinic report that, over time, the balance of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate become altered. GABA inhibits impulsive behavior and glutamate causes the nervous system to become excited. Dopamine levels are also increased by alcohol, which cause the pleasure-seeking behaviors. Genetic markers also can contribute to alcoholism, as the disease tends to run in families. Those with a genetic tendency toward alcoholism are more likely to become addicted once they start drinking. Drinking also can block certain stress hormones, which add to the likelihood of addiction for those who use alcohol to combat stress. Psychological Boost. Many people use alcohol to be socially accepted into various groups. Mayo Clinic doctors report that people with low self-esteem often use alcohol to boost their confidence and fit in with their peers, which can lead to extended use and addiction. People with other mental disorders in addition to social phobias often turn to alcohol to self-medicate. Patients with depression, bipolar disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder commonly become addicted to alcohol after using the drug to decrease the intensity of their symptoms. Excess. Addiction to alcohol is a process that evolves over time, often years. Drinking to excess for an extended period of time increases the likelihood of developing a dependence on the drug. Mayo Clinic doctors report that for men, 15 drinks or more a week can lead to a physical dependence, while women drinking 12 or more drinks per week are at risk for becoming alcoholics. Time frames vary between individuals and can be affected by heredity, the age when the drinking first began, environmental factors, such as drinking in the home, and other emotional and mental disorders.

Subcultural Theories of Youth Culture

Subcultural Theories of Youth Culture Subcultural theories of youth culture owe much to the pioneering work of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) during the 1970s and early 1980s. The CCCS make use of the term subculture from US sociologists at Chicago University, and applied it to visually distinctive post-World War II British working class youth cultures, such as teddy boys, mods, and skinheads. Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives: the functionalist perspective, the Marxist perspective and the post-modernist perspective. These perspectives offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explaining how society influences people, and vice versa. Each perspective uniquely conceptualises society, social forces, and human behaviour. FUNCTIONALISM Functionalism is the oldest, and still the dominant, theoretical perspective in sociology and many other social sciences. According to the functionalist perspective each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to societys functioning as a whole. Functionalists see society as having a structure, with key institutions performing vital functions, and roles directing people in how to behave. They identify the functions of each part of the structure. For example, the state, or the government, provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. This means that the family is dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. If the process succeeds the parts of society produce order, stability and productivity. On the other hand, if th e process does not go well, the parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and productivity. For example, as we are presently experiencing, during a financial recession with its high rates of unemployment and inflation, profit and salary reduction, social programs are trimmed or cut. Families tighten their budgets while employers offer fewer business programs, and a new social order, stability and productivity occur. Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus, or cohesion, in which society members agree upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for society as a whole. Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms: Mechanical Solidarity: This is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work. Mechanical solidarity most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which everyone herds cattle or farms. Amish society exemplifies mechanical solidarity. Organic Solidarity: This is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying types of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialised, complex societies such as those in large American cities like New York in the 2000s. Leading functionalists include Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons. Robert Merton (1910), who was a functionalist as well, developed his theory of deviance which is derived from Durkheims idea of anomie. It is central in explaining how internal changes can occur in a system. For Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural goals and that accepted methods available for reaching them. Merton (1968) has proposed a number of important distinctions to avoid potential weaknesses and clarify ambiguities in the basic functionalist perspective. First, he distinguishes between manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are recognised, intentional and obvious, while latent functions are unrecognised, unintentional, and thus not obvious. Merton used the example of the Hopi rain dance to show that sometimes an individuals understanding of their motive for an action may not fully explain why that action continues to be performed. Sometimes actions fulfil a function of which the acto r is unaware, and this is the latent function of an action. Second, he distinguishes between consequences which are positively functional for a society, those which are dysfunctional for the society, and those which neither. Third, he also distinguishes between levels of society, that is, the specific social units for which regularised patterns of behaviour are functional or dysfunctional. Finally, he maintains that the particular social structures which satisfy functional needs of society are not indispensable, but that structural alternatives may exist which can also satisfy the same functional needs. Merton expanded on the idea that anomie is the alienation of the self from society due to conflicting norms and interests by describing five different types of actions that occur when personal goals and legitimate means come into conflict with each other. Conformity is the typical successful hardworking person who both accepts the goals of the society and has the means for obtaining those goals. This is an example of non-anomie. Innovation refers to the pursuit of culturally approved goals by disapproved, including illegal means, in other words, they must use innovation in order to achieve cultural goals. (Example: Drug dealer who sells drugs to support a family.) Ritualism refers to excessively rigid conformity to approved goals and means, even to the neglect of the actual results; inefficient bureaucrats who adhere rigidly to the rules are the classic example of ritualism. The person who ignores and rejects the means and the goals of the society is said to be retreating from society. (For example a drug addict who has stopped caring about the social goals and chooses a drug induced reality in favour of the socially accepted lifestyle.) Finally, there is a fifth type of adaptation which is that of rebellion which refers to the rejection of approved goals and means in favor of new ones. Functionalism has received criticism as it has a conservative bias. Critics claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the part of societys members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally for any problems that may arise. MARXIST NEW-SUBCULTURAL THEORY Marx argues that societies result from humans getting together to produce food. The forces of production shape social relationships. In Marxist theory, class is the most important social group in the capitalist society and the mayor social configurations are class cultures. The classes are organised depending on the mode of production that determine a concrete set of relations of production: the capitalists (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat). These classes are all the time in conflict and negotiation because one of them is dominant and the other is subordinate. This conflict perspective originated primarily out of Karl Marxs writings on class struggles and it presents society in a different light than do the functionalist perspective. While the latter perspective focus on the positive aspects of society that contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the weak. As we can see, most societies are based upon exploitation of some groups by others. Those who own the means of production, such as factories, land, raw material or capital, exploit those who work for them, who lack the means to produce things themselves. Thus, capitalists accumulate profits and get ri cher and richer. Eventually workers will come to realise that they are being exoploited and will overthrow capitalism and create a communist society. In communism the means of production will be communally owened, so there will be no ruling class, no exploitation and much less inequality than in capitalism. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which potential for inequality exists, such as, racial, gender, religious, political, economic and so on. These theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society. Critics of the conflict perspective point to its extremely negative view of society. The theorys ultimately central problems are: it has difficulty explaining the more orderly and stable elements of social life, it neglects or downplays the cultural and symbolic aspects of social life because it emphasises on economics and class, conflict theorists tend to assume the power differences lead to conflict but differences do not necessarily provoke conflict. POST MODERNISM Post modernist perspectives have developed since the 1980s. Some versions see important changes taking place in society, while other versions question the ability of conventional sociology to produce worthwhile theories of society. Some postmodernists argue that social behaviour is no longer shaped by factors such as class, gender, ethnicity and different types of socialisation. It is now simply a question of lifestyle choice. Finally, Post-Structuralism and Postmodernism, perspectives developed on the French intellectual scene, have had considerable influence on American sociologists in recent years (as well as on scholars in many other fields, especially literary studies). Derived from (but largely rejecting) both the Marxist tradition and the works of anthropologist Claude LÃ ©vi-Strausswho developed a structuralist theory of culturethese theoretical schools seek to account for the apparent disintegration of modern culture over the past several decades. Among the traditions major figures, such as Jacques Derrida and Jean Baudrillard, perhaps the best known is Michel Foucault, a historian and philosopher. Tracing the historical changes in societal attitudes toward punishment, mental illness, and sexuality, among other topics, he argued that knowledge and power have become inextricably entwined. Foucault stressed the disciplinary nature of power, and argued that (social) scientific discourse as one such discipline may itself need to be questioned. Sociologists in this tradition seek not only to study the world differently, but to make the production of sociological knowledge, and thus our own situatedness within structures of knowledge and power, part of the study. American sociologists influenced by this tradition sometimes call their work Discourse Analysis or Cultural Studies.

The Death of woman Wang Essay -- essays research papers

The Death of Woman Wang, by Jonathan Spence is an educational historical novel of northeastern China during the seventeenth century. The author's focus was to enlighten a reader on the Chinese people, culture, and traditions. Spence's use of the provoking stories of the Chinese county T'an-ch'eng, in the province of Shantung, brings the reader directly into the course of Chinese history. The use of the sources available to Spence, such as the Local History of T'an-ch'eng, the scholar-official Huang Liu-hung's handbook and stories of the writer P'u Sung-Ling convey the reader directly into the lives of poor farmers, their workers and wives. The intriguing structure of The Death of Woman Wang consists on observing these people working on the land, their family structure, and their local conflicts. Chapter one, The Observers, in the Death of Woman Wang demonstrates the accuracy of the local historian; Feng K'o-ts'an, who compiled The Local History of T'an-ch'eng in 1673. The descriptive context of the Local History helps the reader to understand and literally penetrate into people's lives. The use of records of the earthquake of 1668, the White Lotus rising of 1622 and rebels rising vividly described by Feng the extent of suffering the people of T'an-ch'eng went through. Jonathan Spence stresses on how miserable the two-quarter of the seventeen-century were to the diminishing population of the county. The earthquake claimed the lives of nine thousand people, many others died in the White lotus rising, hunger, sickness and banditry. P'u Sung-ling's stories convey that after the loss of the wheat crops there were cases of cannibalism. On top of all of this came the slaughtering of the entire family lines by the bandits. The incredible records of women like Yao and Sun in the Loca l History present the reader the magnitude of savagery the bandits possessed. All of these factors led to the rise of suicides. The clarity of events Spence given to the reader is overwhelming. On the other hand, Spence losses his reader as he introduces the spread of Confucius and other superstitious believes through out the county. He states that the Local History states that people became unusually superstitious in parts of T'an-ch'eng. Later on he presents the Confucianism and it influence. Confusion especially occurs then he quotes from many different sources and chapters. For inst... ... to the husband. Yet the reader is presented with woman Wang, who ran away with another man from her husband, Jen. Some of the reasons of her departure could have been neglect from her husband, that she had bound feet and that she had no children. Her actions contradicted any moral wife at that time. After relentless pursuit of happiness woman Wang returned home, there she met her death. The Legal Code justified certain parameters of vengeance on behave of the husband toward his adulterous wife. Nevertheless, Jen was not allowed by the law to simply slaughter his wife. Moreover Jen accused an innocent Kao, for which Jen could have been sentenced to death. Were woman Wang's actions right is for the reader to decide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ultimately, The Death of Woman Wang, by Jonathan Spence is a timeless, educational, historical novel. Spence purpose to enlighten the reader of the Chinese culture, tradition and its land were met through the use of sources, like the Local History of T'an-ch'eng, the scholar-official Huang Liu-hung's handbook and stories of the writer P'u Sung-Ling. The intriguing structure of The Death of Woman Wang will captivate any reader's attention.

Relationships and Interdependence in the Works of Kurt Vonnegut Essay

Relationships and Interdependence in the Works of Kurt Vonnegut While on the surface Kurt Vonnegut's works appear to singularly contain the pessimistic views of an aging, black humorist, his underlying meanings reveal a much more sympathetic and hopeful glimpse of humanity that lends itself to eventual societal improvement. As part of Vonnegut's strategy for enhanced communal welfare, the satirist details in the course of his works potential artificial family groups to connect the masses and alleviate the lonely. Through his science fiction tales of misinterpreted, downcast protagonists and outrageous observations of real life, Vonnegut shines a light on America's problems, proposing a widespread cooperation of common decency and interdependence as viable solutions. Whether or not such notions actually augment the quality of relations, Vonnegut's well-reasoned and starkly ironic scenarios entertain, challenge, and enliven his design for relational welfare through synthetic families. Throughout his works Vonnegut's development of artificial families and expression of common decency between characters helps illuminate his universal theme of societal interdependence in family groups and proves that life is only worth living when individuals support each other. Throughout his writings, Vonnegut illustrates man's necessity of family, whether hereditary or artificial, as a vital contribution to his survival and healthy intercourse with society. All relatives, be they naturally procured or synthetically acquired, possess the unique ability, and responsibility, to support, contribute t... ...te. Vol. 25. Detroit: Gale, 1973. 451. Vonnegut, Kurt. Bluebeard. New York: Delacorte Press, 1987. Vonnegut, Kurt. Breakfast of Champions. New York: Delacorte Press, 1973. Vonnegut, Kurt. Cat's Cradle. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1976. Vonnegut, Kurt. Deadeye Dick. New York: Delacorte Press/ Seymour Lawrence, 1982. Vonnegut, Kurt. Galapagos. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1985. Vonnegut, Kurt. Mother Night. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1963. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slapstick. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1976. Vonnegut, Kurt. The Sirens of Titan. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1959. Vonnegut, Kurt. Timequake. New York: G.P. Putnam's, 1997. Vit, Marek. Kurt Vonnegut Corner: Kurt Vonnegut Essay Collection. http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/4953/kv_essays.html Relationships and Interdependence in the Works of Kurt Vonnegut Essay Relationships and Interdependence in the Works of Kurt Vonnegut While on the surface Kurt Vonnegut's works appear to singularly contain the pessimistic views of an aging, black humorist, his underlying meanings reveal a much more sympathetic and hopeful glimpse of humanity that lends itself to eventual societal improvement. As part of Vonnegut's strategy for enhanced communal welfare, the satirist details in the course of his works potential artificial family groups to connect the masses and alleviate the lonely. Through his science fiction tales of misinterpreted, downcast protagonists and outrageous observations of real life, Vonnegut shines a light on America's problems, proposing a widespread cooperation of common decency and interdependence as viable solutions. Whether or not such notions actually augment the quality of relations, Vonnegut's well-reasoned and starkly ironic scenarios entertain, challenge, and enliven his design for relational welfare through synthetic families. Throughout his works Vonnegut's development of artificial families and expression of common decency between characters helps illuminate his universal theme of societal interdependence in family groups and proves that life is only worth living when individuals support each other. Throughout his writings, Vonnegut illustrates man's necessity of family, whether hereditary or artificial, as a vital contribution to his survival and healthy intercourse with society. All relatives, be they naturally procured or synthetically acquired, possess the unique ability, and responsibility, to support, contribute t... ...te. Vol. 25. Detroit: Gale, 1973. 451. Vonnegut, Kurt. Bluebeard. New York: Delacorte Press, 1987. Vonnegut, Kurt. Breakfast of Champions. New York: Delacorte Press, 1973. Vonnegut, Kurt. Cat's Cradle. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1976. Vonnegut, Kurt. Deadeye Dick. New York: Delacorte Press/ Seymour Lawrence, 1982. Vonnegut, Kurt. Galapagos. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1985. Vonnegut, Kurt. Mother Night. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1963. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slapstick. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1976. Vonnegut, Kurt. The Sirens of Titan. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1959. Vonnegut, Kurt. Timequake. New York: G.P. Putnam's, 1997. Vit, Marek. Kurt Vonnegut Corner: Kurt Vonnegut Essay Collection. http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/4953/kv_essays.html

Environment and crime

The term â€Å"environment† is roughly associated with the immediate surrounding such as the aquatic environment which is the surrounding area or region proximal to aquatic flora and fauna. Oftentimes, the concept of an environment is the agglomeration of both living and nonliving entities with respect to a certain subject surrounded by the immediate surroundings.For instance, a student's environment can be that of a learning institution such as a university whereby the ‘academic' environment is composed of other students, teachers, books and libraries, classrooms and many others.It can be observed that one's environment is a direct correlate to one's activities. If this is indeed the case, it would seem quite plausible to assume that, in terms of an individual's criminal activity, the neighborhood environment is a leading correlate of crime.Granted that this is true, why is it that a large majority of those who live in even the most crime ridden and impoverished areas r efrain from committing crime? To answer this question, a few things must be taken into consideration.First, logic tells us that an individual wanting to commit the crime of robbery for the purpose of stealing the most valuables will most likely rob, say, a wealthy businessman rather than a beggar. In a larger scale, it is logical to presume that a criminal residing in an impoverished and crime ridden locality will least likely rob the residents of the area primarily because there is little reward for a highly punishable act.That is, a criminal will be attracted to steal from individuals with a higher or with the most resources. Hence, one cannot easily identify criminal activity by individuals in the most impoverished and crime ridden areas.Yet the non-identification of criminal activity in an environment does not lead to the presumption that there is none. In order to have a compelling reason to further believe that a large majority of people living in the most ‘criminalized' areas refrain from committing crime, another factor must be considered.This leads us to the second logical presumption—the tendency to attribute certain activities to certain individuals.  Criminal activities are easily identified with criminals in the sense that when an armed robbery occurred in a certain city bank, the immediate suspect will be the criminals who are known to rob banks or who have previous records of armed bank robbery.In this sense, the most crime ridden locality will be included in the list of the ‘hideouts' of potential suspects apparently after each criminal activity is identified to have transpired somewhere else. Hence, there becomes the tendency to attribute certain activities to certain individuals.With this in mind, individuals living in the most crime ridden are prone to be prime candidates for suspects in criminal activities. Their response may be twofold: either they will live up to their ‘label' since they are already ‘brand ed' or they will seek to refrain from committing crime.The first option is indeed probable, yet one factor hinders it from turning into reality: their incapacity to overpower the law due to their impoverished state. Given the fact that these individuals live in a state where there are scarce resources to sustain themselves, there is little reason to believe that these impoverished individuals have the capability to overpower law enforcers through, say, stealing from a well-guarded urban mall.With sanctions imposable on criminals, risking one's impoverished life for a momentary sustenance which has a miniscule chance from succeeding is simply not an option. Hence, a large majority of individuals living in the most crime ridden and impoverished areas refrain from committing crime especially from within their financially challenged locality for the reason that the gains are doubly scarce and that the risks have negligible worth.ReferenceSamaha, J. (2007). Criminal Law (9th ed.). Belmon t: Wadsworth Publishing Company.